The Vedic Civilisation

Vedic civilization

Introduction

The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the history of ancient India. It is named after the Vedas, the early literature of the Hindu people.

The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab. ‘Vedic’ is synonymous with Hinduism, which is another name for religious and spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas.

The Vedic Age is the “heroic age” of ancient Indian civilization. It is also the formative period when the basic foundations of Indian civilization were laid down. These include the emergence of early Hinduism as the foundational religion of India, and the social/religious phenomenon known as caste.

This period of India’s history lasted from around 1500 BC through to 500 BC; that is, from the early days of the Aryan migration into north-west India through to the age of the Buddha.

The Vedic culture occupies the most prominent place in Indian history. Its impact even on modern India is widely prevalent. The religion, philosophy and social customs of the Hindus who constitute the majority in India have their principal source in the Vedic culture.

The Origin of the Aryans

The origin of the Aryans is controversial. Different scholars have expressed different opinions regarding the original homeland of the Aryans and have tried to justify their contentions on the basis of history, philology, racial anthropology and archaeological discoveries.

India, Central Asia, South Russia, the plateau of Pamir, Scandinavia. Germany, Austria, Hungary etc. have been alternatively suggested as the original home of the Aryans, and yet there is no consensus on this question.

Ganganath Jha maintained that the original home of the Aryans was Brahmarishi-Desh, that is, India. D.S. Trivedi expressed the view that the area near Multan and Devika river was their original place. D.S. Kala says that it was the hilly region of the Himalayas and Kashmir.

The Vedic Civilisation – Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organization

Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called ‘jana’. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is ‘vis’. Probably, the vis was divided into ‘grama’ or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the gramas clashed with one another, it caused ‘samgrama’ or war.

The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by ‘griha’. Differentiation in family relationship leading to the setting up of seperate households had not proceeded afar, and the family was a very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed by the father. Since it was a patriarchal society, the birth was desired again and again.

Marriage and Status of Women

The institution of marriage was established, and although symbols of primitive practices survived, the practices of levirate and widow remarriage have been mentioned in the Rig Veda.

The status of women was equal to men and they received ‘Upanayana’ and education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Varna System

‘Varna’ was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three groups-warriors, priests and the people.

The fourth division called the ‘Shudras’ appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period. In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp.

Occupation

The earliest life of the Aryans seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life.

The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or ‘search for cows’.

The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This indicates that they practiced all these crafts. The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.

Diet

The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about sacrificing at weddings or on other important occasions.

The persons who took part in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only as an exception. Milk was an important article of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat (yava), vegetables and fruit.

The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor, called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly acceptable to the Gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the chants appropriate for the ceremonies.

Amusements

Amusements included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is mentioned frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents, so that the prevalence of the practice is beyond doubt.

The Vedas are a collection of hymns and other religious texts composed in India between about 1500 and 1000 BCE. They include elements such as liturgical material as well as mythological accounts, poems, prayers, and formulas considered to be sacred by the Vedic religion.

The origin of the Vedas can be traced back as far as 1500 BCE, when a large group of nomads called the Aryans, coming from central Asia, crossed the Hindu Kush Mountains, migrating into the Indian subcontinent. This invasion hypothesis, however, is not unanimously accepted by scholars today. All we know for certain, mainly through linguistic studies, is that the Aryan language gained ascendency over the local languages in the Indian sub-continent.

The language of the Vedas is Sanskrit, an ancestor of most of the modern languages spoken today in South Asia.

The basic Vedic texts are the Samhita “Collections” of the four Vedas:

Rig-Veda “Knowledge of the Hymns of Praise”, for recitation.
Sama-Veda “Knowledge of the Melodies”, for chanting.
Yajur-Veda “Knowledge of the Sacrificial formulas”, for liturgy.
Atharva-Veda “Knowledge of the Magic formulas”, named after a kind of group of priests.

In general, the Vedas have a strong priestly bias, as the priestly class had the monopoly in the edition and transmission of these texts

Brahmanas

The Brahmanas are a collection of ancient Indian texts with commentaries on the hymns of the four Vedas. They are a layer or category of Vedic Sanskrit texts embedded within each Veda, and form a part of the Hindu literature. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases speculations about natural phenomenon or philosophy.

Brahmanas are particularly noted for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as explain the original symbolic meanings- translated to words and ritual actions in the main text. They lack a homogeneous structure across the different Vedas, with some containing chapters that constitute Aranyakas or Upanishads in their own right.

The Brahmanas layer of Vedic literature contain the exposition of the Vedic rites and rituals. For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight suktas (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child.

Aranyakas

The Aranyakas constitutes the philosophy behind ritual sacrifice of the ancient Indian sacred texts, the Vedas. They typically represent the earlier sections of Vedas, and are one of many layers of the Vedic texts.

Aranyakas describe and discuss rituals from various perspectives, but some include philosophical speculations. For example, Katha Aranyaka describes rituals such as the Mahavrata and Pravargya. Aitareya Aranyaka includes explanation of the Mahavrata ritual from ritualisitic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view. Aranyakas, however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure.

Aranyakas are sometimes identified as karma-kanda (ritualistic action/sacrifice section), while the Upanishads are identified as jnana-kanda (knowledge/spirituality section). In an alternate classification, the early part of Vedas are called Samhitasand the commentary are called the Brahmanas which together are identified as the ceremonial karma-kanda, while Aranyakas and Upanishads are referred to as the jnana-kanda.

Upanishads

The Upanishads are a collection of texts of religious and philosophical nature, written in India, probably between 800 BCE and 500 BCE, during a time when Indian society started to question the traditional Vedic religious order.

Some people during this time decided to engage in the pursuit of spiritual progress, living as ascetic hermits, rejecting ordinary material concerns and giving up family life. Some of their speculations and philosophy were compiled into the Upanishads. There is an attempt in these texts to shift the focus of religious life from external rites and sacrifices to internal spiritual quests in the search for answers.

Etymologically, the name Upanishad is composed of the terms upa (near) and shad (to sit), meaning something like “sitting down near”. The name is inspired by the action of sitting at the feet of an illuminated teacher to engage in a session of spiritual instructions, as aspirants still do in India today.

The books contain the thoughts and insights of important spiritual Indian figures. The Upanishads are not parts of a whole, like chapters in a book. Each of them is complete in itself.

The Vedic Civilisation – Spread, expansion and penetration of the Aryans in India

Spread, expansion and penetration of the Aryans in India

Geographical references indicate that the Aryans spread gradually over to north India. The Aryan expansion proceeded from the Sapta-Sindhu (seven rivers) to the Brahmavarta (eastern region of the Punjab), and they gradually penetrated to eastern India. The Aryan power began to be established in Delhi, Meerut, Kosala, Kashi, North Bihar, etc.

The Aryan civilisation spread to Bengal towards the end of or immediately after the Vedic age. Dharmasutra is a part of Vedic literature. Its study creates the impression that Bengal was outside the Aryavarta.

Aryan expansion began in the south also. The Aryans undertook an expedition to the south in some un-ascertainable past. The existence of several The large kingdom of Sattwata in Vidarbha, the Dandaka Kingdom near Nasik, Mulaka and Ashmaka Kingdoms on the Godavari bank were clear demonstration of the expansion of Aryan power in the south by the end of the Vedic age.

It is not the fact that everywhere in north India and the Deccan the Aryan Kingdoms were established. There are references to the facts that some of the kingdoms were under Non-Aryans. Over and above this, in regions of dense forests, there lived such non-Aryan tribes as Pulindas, Nishadas, Savaras, Kalingas, and Andhras, etc.

In the south, unchallenged supremacy of the Aryans had never been established. Even in the north, co-existence and mutual influence of the Aryan and non-Aryan civilization are matters of deep observation. The Aryans and non-Aryans could not avoid contact with each other. It led to an unexpected synthesis of twin cultures.

The contributions of the both Aryans and non-Aryans to the establishment of Aryan power over the Gangetic valley are invaluable. Indeed, it can be said that what happened in India in the Vedic Age is not to be called the triumph of the Aryans only. It is proper to describe it as one of the Aryan movement and expansion.

Social Life of Aryans during the Vedic Period

During the early Vedic period, families of the Aryans were patriarchal in character. The ownership of the property rested with the head of the family.

The position of women was very high among the Aryan people. They could receive higher education and were looked upon with much regard and esteem. Women could join the politics and could take part in the proceedings of Sabha and Samiti. Child marriage was not prevalent and women could select their husbands. Some of the notable women of this age were Apala, Ghosha, Vishwavara etc.

There was no hereditary caste distinction in the early Vedic age. The Aryan Society was divided into four Varnas on the basis of duties. Those who took up the work of war came to be known as the Kshatriyas, workers in trade and agricultural field were known as Vaishyas and those who had taken up the priestly duties became known as Brahmans. So, initially the Aryan society became divided into three Varnas.

In later period, the non-Aryan captives, the aboriginals and those who surrendered themselves with the Aryans were given a place in Hindu society and they were known as Sudras, i.e., the fourth Varna.

The Aryan people generally took vegetarian food. The most common food was milk and milk products, fruits, vegetables, wheat and barley. Meat was taken on special occasion. On festive occasions, ‘Somarasa’ was taken.

As dresses, they used clothes made of cotton, wool and animal skins. The dress of Aryans generally consisted of two parts – Vasas or lower part and Adhivara or upper part. The ladies used an undergarment, known as nivi. Shoes and ornaments were also used.

Economic Condition of the Aryans

Agriculture

The Aryans were pastoral people and agriculture was their chief livelihood. Lands raised for cultivation were called ‘Urvara’ or ‘Kshetra’. The normal method for ploughing fields was by a means of a pair of oxen tied to the yoke.

The primary crops were wheat and barley. Every member of the family normally worked at the fields and agricultural processes, like filling the soil, cutting of grooves, sowing the seeds, cutting of corn with sickle were known to them.

They were also familiar with utilisation of manures.

Taming of Animals

Cattle and cow were held in high esteem and were seen as goddesses. There was nothing like money to buy things- one had to exchange their cattle or any other valuable. Cows were considered holy by the Aryans. Cows and oxen were functional for agriculture also.

Milk was one of the fundamental drinks of the Aryans and hence they gave a lot of importance to the cows. Cows were also used as unit of value in the batter system, predominant during that time.

Besides cows, goat, sheep, buffalo were also domesticated by the Aryans.

Trade and profession

The professions of goldsmith, carpenter, blacksmith, weavers etc., were rather widespread. The barter system was prevalent during the Rigvedic period.

The reference of ‘Niska’, a type of coin is also found.

Roads were constructed for trade and commerce. The Aryans also utilised ships and boats for shipping of goods.

Religion

The religion of the early Aryans was a form of nature-worship. They worshipped numerous Gods, like Sky, Surya (Sun), Indra, Varuna, Prithvi (earth), Agni (sacrificial fire), Vayu (Wind), Usha (dawn) and Aditi (mother of Gods or sometimes cow) etc. The rivers like Ganga and Saraswati were also considered to be goddesses.

The Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of yoga and vedanta. Divinities of the early Aryans can be divided into three categories viz.- Celestial Gods, Atmospheric Gods and Terrestrial Gods. This illustrates that the Aryans had faith in a great number of Gods. But there is also mention in the Rigveda that the unity of the God-head was also recognised by the Aryans. The various deities worshipped, were considered by them to be the manifestation of the Supreme Being.

The Aryans offered sacrifices to the Gods to appease them. This was generally accomplished by chanting verses, which was done by calling a priest who helped common man perform these rituals. The common man performed simple sacrifices, offering milk, ghee, grain etc. But majestic sacrifices, such as the Ashvamedha were made by kings.

Moreover the Aryans envisioned the human spirit of the Gods and therefore, each God had a human form. No reference of idol worship is found. It appears that they despised image-worship. The Aryans were broadly optimists and hence sorrier facets of life have not been underlined in their religion. They were full of heartiness and their mindset towards life was full of optimism and aspiration.

Hindus claim that the Hindu scripture was composed sometime around 3000 BCE by several sages in direct contact with their god, Krishna. They claim that there is no evidence that outsiders – Aryans – invaded the Indus Valley and brought Hindu scripture with them. They blame the notion of this invasion on Christian scholars from the 19th century.

It is not clear as to when writing was learnt by the Aryans. But after it became widespread, some Brahmins (priests) considered it a sacrilege to change from communicating their religion orally. Some other Brahmins supported the innovation, and they put traditional Aryan stories into writing, in what became known as the Vedas – Veda meaning wisdom.

The Vedas have been described as reflecting a rural lifestyle of the Aryans as opposed to the more urban culture of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa civilization.

The Vedas implied that humanity is basically good, and, in contrast to the view of sin in West Asia, sin among the Hindus was viewed as a force from outside oneself – an invader. Hinduism’s Vedas saw evil as the work of demons that might take the form of a human or some other creature, which could be removed by the prayers and rituals of priests.

The Vedic Civilisation – Later Vedic Period

The period that followed the Rig Vedic Age is known as the Later Vedic Age. This age witnessed the composition of three later Veda Samhitas, namely the Samveda Samhita, the Yajurveda Samhita, the Atharvaveda Samhita; as well as the Brahmanas and the Upanishads of all the four Vedas and later on the two great epics—the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. All these later Vedic texts were compiled in the Upper Gangetic basin in 1000—600 BC.

During the period represented by Later Samhitas the Aryans covered the whole of Northern India, from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas.

Spread of the Aryans

The spread of Aryans over the whole of India completed before 400 B.C. Of the new kingdoms in the east, the most important were Kurus, Panchalas, Kasis, Kosalas and Videhas.

Gradually, the Aryans moved towards South India. It is believed that their southern movement began during the period of Brahmana literature, about 1000 B.C.; and went on steadily till they reached the southernmost extremity of the Peninsula in or sometime before the fourth century B.C.

But the Aryan colonization in the South was not as complete as in the north. With the progress of the Aryans in Northern India, their centre of civilization was shifted towards the East. The territory between the Saraswati and Ganga Rivers was the seat of Aryan civilization.

Political Organisation

Rise of Big States

With the progress of Aryan settlements in the eastern and southern parts of India, the small tribal states of the Rig Vedic period were replaced by powerful states.

Many famous tribes of the Rig Vedic period like the Bharatas, Parus, Tritsus and Turvasas passed into oblivion and new tribes like the Kurus and Panchalas rose into prominence. The land of the Yamuna and Ganga in the east became the new home of the Aryans and rose into prominence.

Growth of Imperialism

With the emergence of big kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age, the struggle for supremacy among different states was of frequent occurrence. The ideal of “Sarbabhauma” or universal empire loomed large in the political horizon of ancient India. Sacrifices like Rajasuya and Asvamedha were performed to signify the imperial sway of monarchs over the rivals. These rituals impressed the people with the increasing power and prestige of the king. The Rig Vedic title of “Rajan” was replaced by impressive titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoja, etc. These titles marked the growth of imperialism and feudal ideas.

Origin of Kingship

There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship. The Aitareya Brahmana explained the rational theory of election by common consent of origin of kingship.

And the Taittiniya Brahman explained the divine origin of kingship. It explained how Indra, “though occupying a low rank among the gods, was created their king by Prajapati.”

Growth of Royal Power

The king had absolute power. He became the master of all subjects. He realized taxes like “bali”, “sulka” and “bhaga”.

The Satapatha Brahmana described the king to be infallible and immune from all punishment. The “Sabha” of the Rig Vedic Period died. The king sought the aid and support of the Samiti on matters like war, peace and fiscal policies. There are references to the Samiti sometimes, in the context of electing or re-electing a king.

The authority of the government in the later Vedic period was perhaps more democratic in the sense that the authority of the leaders of the Aryan tribes was recognized by the king. However in spite of the existence of the popular assemblies, the powers of the King went on increasing, due to the growth of large territorial states.

The growth of royal power was largely reflected in the enlarged outrage of the king. In the work of administration the king was assisted by a group of officers who were known as Ratnins (Jewels). They included the Bhagadugha (collector of taxes), the Suta (charioteer), the Akshavapa (superintendent of gambling), the kshattri (chamberlain), the Govikartana (king’s companion in the chase), the Palogala (courtier) the Takshan (Carpenter), the Rathakara (Chariot marker) in addition to the ecclesiastical and military officials like the Purohita (chaplain) the senani (general), and the Gramani (leader of host or of the village).

In the Later Vedic Period, the Gramani was both a civil and military officer. Gramanis weres the medium through which the royal power was exercised in the village. Adhikritas were the village officers, and were lowest in the rank.

The king administered justice. Occasionally, he delegated his judicial power to Adhyakshas. In the villages, Gramyavadins (Village judges) and Sabhas (courts) decided the cases. Punishments for crimes were severe.

The father was the head of the property of the family. In case of inheritance of property, the law of primogeniture was applied. By this rule the eldest son would inherit the property of the deceased father. Neither the women nor the sudras had any right to property.

Social Organisation

The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Shudras.

Brahmanas conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves, and also officiated at the festivals associated with agricultural operations.

They prayed for the success of their patron in war, and in return the King pledged not to do any harm to them. Sometimes, the Brahmanas came into conflict with the rajanyas, who represented the order of the warrior-nobles, for position of supremacy. Towards the end of the Vedic period, they began to engage in trade. All the three higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras.

The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with this began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras.

Outside the caste-system, there stood two important bodies of men, namely Vratyas and Nishadas.

According to the Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, the Brahmana is described as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will.

A Vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for being beaten, and to be oppressed at will.

The worst position is reserved for the shudra. He is called the servant of another.

Certain section of artisans such as rathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed a higher status, and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony.

The term “Nagar” appears for the first time, showing the joint beginnings of town life.

Women were generally giver a lower position. Although some women theologians took part in philosophic discussions and some queens participated in coronation rituals, ordinarily women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to men.

Marriages

Eight types of marriage were prevalent in the later Vedic age. Of these, four (Brahman, Daiva, Arsa and Prajapati) were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. These were religious marriages and were indissoluble.

Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man below his varna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the sacred texts.
Pratiloma Marriage: It was the marriage of a girl or women to one lower than her own varna. It was not sanctioned by the sacred texts.
Gotra System: The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means the “cow-pen” or the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept. The gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people. People began to practise gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.

The Eight Type of Marriages:

Brahma	Marriage of a girl to a man of the same Varna with Vedic rites and rituals
Daiva	The father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshina.
Arsa	A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.
Prajapati	Marriage without dowry and bride-price.
Gandharva	Marriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it was swayamvara or self choice.
Asura	Marriage by purchase.
Paisacha	It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be called a marriage.
Rakshasa	Marriage by Capture

Important Vedic Rituals

Ashvamedha

Ashvamedha is a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion.

It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty. A horse accompanied by the king’s warriors would be released to wander for a period of one year. In the territory traversed by the horse, any rival could dispute the king’s authority by challenging the warriors accompanying it.

After one year, if no enemy had managed to kill or capture the horse, the animal would be guided back to the king’s capital. It would then be sacrificed, and the king would be declared as an undisputed sovereign.

Vajapeya

Vajapeya is a Soma Yajna, though it certainly involves minor animal sacrifice too. It is done by the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas and is one of the greatest Soma yajnas of its kind. The surname of some Brahmins “Bajpai” or “Vajpayee” derives from this yajna.

Rajasuya

Rajasuya was a yajna or sacrifice, performed by the ancient kings of India who considered themselves powerful enough to be an emperor. It is described in detail in the Mahabharata.

Rajasuya, like the Ashwamedha, would occur after the return of the generals of the king (in most cases his own kinsmen, like his brother or son) from a successful military campaign.

After conquering the kings of other kingdoms and collecting tribute from them, the general would invite the vanquished kings to attend the sacrifice ceremony. All the vanquished kings would in effect consider the performer of these sacrifices as an emperor.

In case of Rajasuya, there is no horse involved. The generals planned their route themselves. Rajasuya sacrifices were rarer than Ashwamedha sacrifices, since they were riskier and costlier.

Upanayana

Upanayana is one of the traditional saṃskāras, that marked the acceptance of a student by a guru (teacher) and an individual’s entrance to a school.

The tradition is widely discussed in ancient Sanskrit texts of India and varies regionally.

Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception in women.

Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child

Semontonayam: It is a ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child in the womb.

Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord.

Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in their third year.

Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija(twice horn) status of boys of the higher varnas in their eight year

The Vedic Civilisation – Economy – Religion in the Later Vedic Period – Vedic Literature

Economy

Though they had not developed a city civilisation, and did not build in stone or brick, the Aryans were technically well-equipped. Their bronzesmiths were highly skilled, and produced tools and weapons much superior to those of the Harappan culture. Bronzesmiths, carpenters and chariotmakers are frequently mentioned in the Rigveda with much respect.

As might be expected of a people without cities, the Aryans followed a mixed economy-pastoral and agricultural-in which cattle played a predominant part. Indeed, most of their battles were fought in search of cows-gavisthi. Cattle were in fact a sort of currency, and values were reckoned in heads of cattle, but they were not held sacred at this time. Both oxen and cows were slaughtered for food. The horse was almost as important as the cow. Though there are references to riding, the horse is more frequently described as the motive power of the chariot-a light chariot with two spoked wheels, drawn by two horses yoked abreast, and carrying two warriors.

Among other domestic animals, the Aryans knew the goat and the sheep, which provided wool, their chief textile. The elephant is only mentioned in late hymns, and was rarely, if ever, domesticated. A divine bitch, Sarama, plays an important part in a legend, but the dog did not mean as much to the people of the Rigveda.

Agriculture, though important, seems to have been looked on as rather plebeian. There are references to ploughing, reaping and irrigation, and to different seasons.

The Aryans relied for their unit of value and means of barter on the cow. The nishka, a term later used for a gold coin, is also mentioned as a sort of currency, but at this time it was probably a gold ornament of some kind. There is no mention of a regular class of merchants or moneylenders, though indebtedness is sometimes referred to.

Pottery

The later Vedic people used four types of pottery-black and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware. The last type of pottery was the most popular with them.

However, the most distinctive pottery of the period is known as Painted Grey Ware, which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for rituals or for eating by the upper classes.

Religion in the Later Vedic Period

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon.

Rudra, the God of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice signs of idolatry.

Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the God to the sudras.

Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity).

The mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character.

The Guests were known as the Goghna, or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and givendakshinas or gifts.

The Chief Priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:-

Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from the Rig Veda.
Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from the Yajur Veda.
Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from the Sama Veda

The Chief Priests received voluntary offering from the people, which were called Bali.

Vedic Literature

Rig-Veda

The Rig Veda is the oldest of the Vedas. All the other Vedas are based upon it and consist to a large degree of various hymns from it. It consists of a thousand hymns of different seers, each hymn averaging around ten verses.

The Rig Veda is the oldest book in Sanskrit or any Indo-European language. Its date is debatable. Many great Yogis and scholars who have understood the astronomical references in the hymns, date the Rig Veda as before 4000 B.C., perhaps as early as 12,000. Modern western scholars tend to date it around 1500 B.C., though recent archeological finds in India (like Dwaraka) now appear to require a much earlier date.

While the term Vedic is often given to any layer of the Vedic teachings including the Bhagavad Gita, technically it applies primarily to the Rig Veda.

The Rig Veda is the book of Mantra. It contains the oldest form of all the Sanskrit mantras. It is built around a science of sound which comprehends the meaning and power of each letter. Most aspects of Vedic science like the practice of yoga, meditation, mantra and Ayurveda can be found in the Rig Veda and still use many terms that come from it.

Sam Veda

The Samveda is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic sanskrit text, and part of the scriptures of Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a liturgical text whose 1,875 verses are primary derived from the Rigveda. Three recensions of the Samaveda have survived, and variant manuscripts of the Veda have been found in various parts of India.

While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic period, the existing compilation dates from the post-Rigvedic Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, c. 1200 or 1000 BCE, but roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda.

Yajurveda

The Yajurveda is the Veda of prose mantras. An ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire.

Yajurveda is one of the four Vedas, and one of the scriptures of Hinduism. The exact century of Yajurveda’s composition is unknown, and estimated by scholars to be around 1200 to 1000 BCE, contemporaneous with Samaveda and Atharvaveda.

Atharva Veda

The Atharva Veda (Atharvaveda from ‘atharvāṇas’ and veda meaning “knowledge”) is the knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the “procedures for everyday life”. The text is the fourth Veda, but has been a late addition to the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism.

The Atharvaveda is composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and it is a collection of 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras, divided into 20 books. About a sixth of the Atharvaveda text adapts verses from the Rigveda, and except for Books 15 and 16, the text is in poem form deploying a diversity of Vedic matters. Two different recensions of the text – the Paippalāda and the Śaunakīya – have survived into modern times.

Reliable manuscripts of the Paippalada edition were believed to have been lost, but a well-preserved version was discovered among a collection of palm leaf manuscripts in Odisha in 1957.

Upanishads

The Upanishads are the philosophical works in a conversational form. Philosophy of nature & the fate of soul, procedures of meditation & the nature of God are the principal themes discussed in the Upanishads.

They have been acknowledged as the concluding part of the Vedas, which form the Vedanta. The Sanskrit term implies “sitting down beside” The Upanishads are summarized in one phrase “Tat Tvam Asi”(That thou art) by Advaita Vedanta, which believes in the ultimate truth “Brahma”.

The Upanishads open with the word “aum”, considered to be a divine word that underlies the philosophy of existence of being in one self. There are 11 principal (mukhya) Upanishads- Aryanaka, Brhadarnaka, Isha, Taiterreya, Katha, Chandogya, Kena, Mundaka, Mundyaka, Prasna, Svetasvatara.

The Older Upanishads are traced back to have some connection with Vedic Charanas.

Smriti

Vedic literature is primarily of two types, Sruti and Smriti. The Veda is called Sruti and is the highest authority.

The other texts are called Smritis, and they derive authority from the Sruti. The Sruti is apaurusheya (eternal and authorless), and Smritis are the words of seers.

Smritis could be broadly classified as:

Vedangas: Subjects required to understand various aspects of the Veda.
Upavedas: Arts and sciences.
Upangas: Understanding of dharma and debating it.
Darsanas: Windows to truth.

Vedangas

“Vedangas” literally mean the limbs of the Vedas. They are six in number. Just like the limbs of the body, they perform various supportive and augmenting functions in the study, preservation and protection of the Vedas and the vedic traditions.

The six Vedangas are Siksha, Chhanda, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Jyotisha and Kalpa. These subjects were an integral and essential part of ancient vedic education system, aimed to promote an all round development of the students with a better understanding of the Vedas and vedic practices.

Of these six subjects, Siksha deals with the study of sounds and pronunciation associated with each syllable; Chhanda with the mastery of rhyme and meter; Vyakarna with the study of word and sentence structure; Nirukta with the meaning of complex words and phrases; Jyotisha with the study of heavenly bodies to find an auspicious time for the performance of the rituals; and Kalpa with the ethical, moral and procedural percepts associated with the performance of rituals as a way of life.

Epics

In history as the Indians understand it, the Later Vedic Period is the Epic Age. The great literary, heroic epics of Indian culture, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, though they were composed between 500 and 200 BC, were probably originally formulated and told in the Later Vedic Period.

Both of these epics deal with heroes from this period and demonstrate how Aryan cultural values, as we can understand them from the Rig Veda, are being transformed by mixing with Indus culture.

Important Facts